The Skill Acquisition Process Relative to Ethnobotanical Methods

K. W. Bridges and Y. Han Lau

Editorial

Ethnobotany is an interdisciplinary field in that it utilizes methods from a wide array of science traditions, especially botany and anthropology. Ethnobotanical specialties, such as medical ethnobotany, require knowledge and skills in additional areas, such as chemistry, medical anthropology and pharmacology, in order to be sufficiently competent to define and undertake the more specialized ethnobotanical research. However, some skills transcend disciplines. Basic computer competence is needed in virtually all studies to organize and analyze research data.

The potential number of skills and methodologies required to be an ethnobotanists can be overwhelming, particularly if you are expected to be highly trained in each activity. Perhaps it is unrealistic to demand high proficiency in all activities. If so, is there a way that we can systematically identify the attainment of skill levels in ways that help us discuss appropriate types of proficiency? For example, there is a vast difference between someone who has learned how to use a GPS receiver to determine the latitude and longitude of a collection location and someone who understands the differences between using a latitude-longitude and the UTM models. Does everyone need to understand the models, or are there times where a tool is useful just for data collection?

Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986) proposed a five-stage skill acquisition model to describe the general skill acquisition process that people undergo when they begin to learn and then master a new skill. They argue that the progression from novice to expert is dependent on the individual’s scope of perception and experience with the task at hand. Their model was developed based on recurrent learning patterns observed during skill-acquisition research involving airplane pilots, chess players, automobile drivers, and adult learners of a second language. Their five stages are termed 1) novice, 2) advanced beginner, 3) competent, 4) proficient, and 5) expert (Figure 1). They observed that at each stage, an individual becomes familiar with a skill by continually performing a series of activities. The first two stages rely heavily on following a set of rules pertaining to the technical aspect of the skill. The third stage is transitional in that a person begins to take on more responsibilities by becoming involved in the decision making process of projects that utilize the skill. People who have attained the fourth and fifth stages are making decisions without being consciously aware of their applying the rules learned during the first and second stages. The last two stages essentially separate a person from being a follower of rules to an effective decision maker.

Figure 1. Five stages of skill acquisition.

We believe that Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986) were generally characterizing skill acquisition stages with the following attributes:

• Novice: Follows the rules, requires specific rules for specific circumstances, and takes no responsibility other than following the rules.
• Advanced Beginner: Expanded view of situations in which the skill is applied, begins to transfer rules to related situations, still makes decisions based on rules, and does not experience personal responsibility.
• Competent: Senses that the number of rules is be- coming excessive, begins to organize rules by developing principles, starts developing information on the relative importance of particular rules, and begins to experience responsibility relative to decision-making resulting from the application of rules.
• Proficient: Problems are solved intuitively based on extensive previous experience, sees the “whole picture,” and applies conscious decision-making by formulating a plan of action.
• Expert: Doesn’t go through the normal processes but intuitively senses what should be done, often without the need for analysis.

McClatchey (2006) has called for publication through this journal that will make available a range of intellectual tools needed by ethnobotanists, particularly for those researchers who live in areas of the world who don’t have access to abundant literature. The goal is to improve access so that all people will be able to do high-quality research. We concur with this need to make information widely avail- able if the overall quality of ethnobotanical research is to be improved.

The Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986) model provides a substantial organizational framework that can be used describe specific types of skills needed for each ethnobotanical method. The models also forces a consideration of the order in which skills should be acquired.

When we tried to apply skill acquisition model to ethnobotanical situations, we were struck with the similarity of the skill levels to the types of activities under- taken in a normal scientific research program. Just as in the Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986) model, there are five types of research activities, each with an increasing level of involvement and responsibility. We note in this list the corresponding skill-levels activities.

1. Data: Use a tool or methodology to collect data values (Novice activity).
2. Analysis: Use the data values in an application (such as a software program) to determine the aggregate properties of the data which have been collected (Advanced Beginner activity).
3. Problem: Develop an appropriate sample scheme and apply the analysis results to the solution of a specific problems (.Competent activity)
4. Hypothesis: Generate a series of hypotheses that define specific problems that need to be investigated within a fairly specific context (Proficient activity).
5. Theory: Develop theories that best describe the operation of the system under study, comparing and contrasting this to other situations and systems (Expert activity).

We believe that there are implications of the level of skill attained for a particular ethnobotanical method in how a researcher carries out a scientific study. For example, learning to use a particular method to collect data is just a starting point of a larger endeavor. You are anchored at the “novice” end of the level of skill acquisition if you are only able to collect data. Basic data collection is, of course, a vital process. The additional skill levels are just as important. Skills at these higher levels are needed to address the other aspects of the process of scientific investigation, including the formation of testable hypotheses and the development of theory (activities done by those who are competent and expert). The various skill levels depend on each other. This does not imply that the activities are necessarily done by separate people. Research investigators who work at the higher cognitive levels should also be proficient at all the lower levels.

An expert is able to start at the theory end and work toward the application of the tool (or methodology). The expert picks the right tool to be used to collect data, knows how to use this tool, is aware of tool’s limitations, and can spot invalid data values. Novice investigators are “tool” focused and are simply data collectors. A novice doesn’t look forward to how the data will be analyzed and doesn’t make the connection between the data and ethnobotanical theory.

We can show the relationships of the research levels to skill activities with several hypothetical examples (Table 1). Note that throughout this system, a person who works at a higher level (e.g., analysis versus data) is expected to be able to work at the lower level, too.

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Table 1. Hypothetical examples of ethnobotanical research projects divided into research activities and the associated skill levels.

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Example A. Forced relocation of ethnic group.

1. Data: Reads an existing informed consent document to a community and leads free-listing exercises in community groups (Novice activity).
2. Analysis: Determines the appropriate composition of the community groups and does basic analyses of the species reported by each group (Advanced Beginner activity).
3. Problem: Locates the appropriate number and type of communities, contacts the appropriate people in the communities, adapts the informed consent documents, and validates the plant reports (Competent activity).
4. Hypothesis: Establishes the region in which the study will take place so that there are appropriately contrasting communities and sample groups and decides on the appropriate analysis methodology (Proficient activity).
5. Theory: Evaluates the role of plant knowledge in the communities of the ethnic group that was sampled, including comparisons to communities that were not relocated and to other ethnic groups who have undergone similar changes (Expert activity).

Example B. Sustainability of a harvested forest species.

1. Data: Observes, collects and enters data for analysis on the quantity of the species harvested (Novice activity).
2. Analysis: Performs basic statistical analyses on the harvest data (Advanced Beginner activity).
3. Problem: Establishes the areas in which samples should be taken, the frequency of sampling, the sampling methodology, verifies the general reliability of the data, and examines the data analyses for trends (Competent activity).
4. Hypothesis: Poses questions that relate to the distribution, phenology, growth and reproductive rates of the plants relative to the distribution, population growth, and harvesting practices of the people (Proficient activity).
5. Theory: Evaluates the cultural conditions surrounding the use of the plant species relative to alternative species, traditional cultural values, and outside influences (Expert activity).

Example C. Medicinal plant use in a community.

1. Data: Conducts surveys in a community by asking which plants are used and the diseases that they treat; compiles tables of the results (Novice activity).
2. Analysis: Aggregates the data species and use data with higher-order classifications and enumerates the reporting frequencies (Advanced Beginner activity).
3. Problem: Locates study communities in appropriate areas and obtains permission to conduct surveys; collects voucher specimens to document the surveys (Competent activity).
4. Hypothesis: Poses questions that relate to changes or differences in the traditional medicinal system and proposes places where there are contrasting situations within the same culture (Proficient activity)
5. Theory: Evaluates the community perceptions of disease and its treatment, analyzes the skills and knowledge of different members of the community, dissects the knowledge acquisition process, and predicts the potential impacts of introducing alternative medicinal systems and the consequences of land use changes (Expert activity).

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The hypothetical studies are intended to demonstrate that people who are more skilled can work at a higher level. For a study to be successful, one or more people should be working at each skill level. The details will vary in a real study although we expect the pattern of abstraction will remain approximately the same.

Using a skill-acquisition approach for the description of ethnobotanical methods raises a number of questions.

• What is the skill level that should be the target of a particular ethnobotanical research method?
• What is the skill level that would motivate a person to use and maintain an ability to use the method?
• Is attaining a higher skill level an important inducement to adopt and use a method?
• All skill levels require some maintenance. At what skill level does this maintenance cost exceed the benefits of maintaining the skill level?
• Are skill levels maintained in ways that are different than how they are acquired?

We believe that McClatchey (2006) has called for more than a “Methods Book” for ethnobotany. As ethnobotanists, we have the skills in examining how people are involved in the use of technology. Our proposal is that authors who respond to McClatchey’s challenge should incorporate information about skill acquisition patterns into their manuscripts.

Literature Cited

Dreyfus, H.L. & S.E. Dreyfus. 1986. Mind over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer. Free Press.

McClatchey, W.C. 2006. Improving the Quality of International Ethnobotany Research and 
Publications. Ethnobotany Research and Applications 4:1-9.

Access and Citation

www.ethnobotanyjournal.org/vol4/i1547-3465-04-093.pdf

Ethnobotany Research & Applications 4:115-118 (2006)

Correspondence

Kim Bridges, Department of Botany, 3190 Maile Way, Room 101, University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96822. U.S.A. kim.bridges@gmail.com

Environmental Monitoring

Novice

• Makes a few spot measurements if directed to do so.
• Relies on equipment provided by other people.
• Trusts the values produced by the equipment.
• Does not calibrate equipment.
• Transfers data well after the measurements have been taken.
• Makes no efforts to integrate the data with other sources.
• Does not participate in the analysis of the data.

Advanced Beginner

• Conducts some searching for existing data before making any measurements.
• Helps arrange to have the proper equipment available.
• Tests the equipment before it is deployed.
• Transfers the data soon after it is collected.
• Analyzes the data superficially, usually long after all data are collected.
• Uses an experimental design provided by other people.
• Does not put the data into an historical or temporal context.

Competent

• Promptly backs up the data and begins the analyses.
• Uses a variety of data analysis techniques to assess and portray the temporal and spatial attributes of the data.
• Interprets the data in the context of other studies.
• Selects, calibrates and tests all of the equipment.
• Properly stores equipment between uses.

Proficient

• Prepares the data analysis workflow well ahead of time.
• Quickly notes unexpected data values so these can be handled appropriately.
• Creates qualitative categories for the measurements and applies these to the data.

Expert

Please Note: The skills and behaviors for this set are under development.

Field Activities

Novice

• Has only vague ideas of what should be accomplished while in the field.
• Does little preparation that is appropriate to the field tasks.
• Takes too much "stuff," most of which is unneeded or inappropriate.
• Trusts other people to provide guidance in the field tasks.
• Is not prepared to cope with difficulties or emergencies.
• Wastes time with tasks that are unnecessary or inappropriate.
• Leaves field data (notes, specimens, photos, etc.) at risk.
• Has little sense of a workflow that is appropriate for handling field data (notes, specimens, photos, etc.).

Advanced Beginner

• Is able to generally assess the requirements of the field site as part of the planning process.
• Obtains maps and other location-specific information prior to leaving for the field site.
• Inadequately practices using methodologies and technology prior to arriving at the field site.
• Does not monitor time utilization well and may fail to complete key tasks.
• Makes some provision for protecting field data but does this inconsistently.
• Fails to obtain some key information while in the field.
• Is able to accomplish some basic tasks with self-motivation, but still relies on other people to provide the overall guidance.
• Has created some basic emergency strategies and is somewhat prepared to implement these.

Competent

• Creates and maintains checklists of supplies and equipment.
• Packs supplies and equipment in appropriate containers.
• Knows which critical equipment can be replaced in the field or carries appropriate redundancy.
• Is able to use all the methodologies and technology required and practices this before arriving at the field site.
• Generally completes the expected field studies within the time and resources allocated.
• Provides routine care so that field data (notes, specimens, photos, etc.) degradation or loss is minimized.
• Knows what tasks are to be accomplished and has the motivation and discipline to carry these out.
• Has prepared for a wide range of emergencies and maintains the needed information and resources.

Proficient

• Generally depends on many locally available items rather than transporting these.
• Is able to adapt many local supplies and equipment to alternative uses.
• Uses standard methodologies and technology with great efficiency and is able to adapt and innovate while in the field.
• Actively finds new opportunities for study while completing the anticipated tasks.
• Creates an efficient and effective workflow that minimizes the possibility of field data (notes, specimens, photos, etc.) degradation or loss.
• Plans ahead so that emergency situations are generally avoided.

Expert

• Devotes considerable time to planning the field work so that everything is in place and ready when it is needed.
• Trains everyone so that they actively contribute to the overall goals of the field tasks.
• Is able to create a support network that functions efficiently.  This may require training other people to provide key activities.
• Knows what resources are critical to efficient work and makes sure that these are always available.
• "Outsources" many of the logistics tasks so that time at the field site is focused on the primary objectives.

Please Note: The skills and behaviors for this topic are under development.

Community Analysis

Community Analysis is a basic skill for ecological studies and is very useful tool for many field studies.

Vegetation map for the City of San Carlos, California (credit: http://www.cityofsancarlos.org)

Novice

• Shows little awareness of the need to classify places or things.
• Uses only simple, haphazard processes to group places or things.
• Performs simple community analyses if provided with step-by-step instructions.

Advanced Beginner

• Recognizes the general requirements for community analysis data.
• Organizes data, inputs the data into community analysis software, and runs the analysis.
• Produces competent, basic interpretations from the community analysis software.

Competent

• Handles qualitative and quantitative community analysis data with confidence.
• Recognizes the value in doing community analyses.
• Displays classification data on maps.
• Clearly understands the underlying procedures (e.g., similarity matrix, dendrogram display).

Proficient

• Uses a variety of community analysis tools and moves data effortlessly between tool sets.
• Fully integrates the community analysis process from the recognition of a problem through the display of the analysis products and interpretation of the problem.
• Promotes the use of the entire suite of community analysis tools.

Expert

• Understands the benefits and limitations of the models underlying community analysis tools.
• Critically evaluates community analysis results in the context of the problem, data limitations and analytical methodology constraints.
• Creates visualizations that are innovative and highly explanatory.
• Develops new tools to complement the arsenal of community analysis software.

Please Note: The skills and behaviors for this topic are under development.

Statistics

Quantitative studies are an important part of all aspects of field botany. Research involving numbers involves statistical analyses. Usually these are quantitative explorations of the data. Sometimes they involve qualitative assessments. Equally important are the visual displays of information, for both quantitative and qualitative data. This set of skills and behaviors addresses all of these topics.

Novice

• Handles only simple concepts like "average."
• Calculates simple statistics only when requested.
• Creates simple visualizations, such as bar charts, by following instructions.
• Knows about regressions but is uncertain about their creation.
• Is generally unaware of qualitative studies.

Advanced Beginner

• Understands the concept of statistical inference.
• Creates spreadsheet datasets in the format appropriate for data visualizations.
• Generates regressions and data visualizations in a spreadsheet using default settings.
• Uses basic concepts of experimental design to guide data collection and analysis.

Competent

• Creates appropriate experimental designs for each problem.
• Institutes efficient data collection protocols.
• Handles complex data efficiently using a variety of software.
• Uses a variety of statistical software in solving problems and displaying results.
• Selects an appropriate statistical test for a variety of situations.
• Draws from a wide range of statistical tests and understands the basic assumptions on which each is based.
• Builds visualizations that are supportive of problems and which meet high-quality standards.
• Guides other people in the proper use of statistics for common problems.

Proficient

• Understands a wide range of applicable statistical tests.
• Performs tests to determine minimum sampling sizes.
• Extracts information using exploratory tools.

Expert

• Develops new forms of data visualization.
• Creates data handling software that meets specialty needs.
• Understands the mathematics behind the statistical tests.
• Builds experimental designs that are highly efficient and appropriate to problems.

Please note: This set of skills and behaviors is under development.

Teams in the Field

Field research is generally a team exercise. It may be just two people or a half-dozen. It is important for each participant to work as a member of the team by being appropriately trained and knowing her role in the team.

Team Leader
 
The team leader is expected to do the following:

• Demonstrate all of the basic planning, risk assessment, first-aid skills demanded of all individual team members.
• Show leadership skills so that the overall team functions safely and accomplishes its goals.
• Articulate individual responsibilities and monitors performance regarding these responsibilities.
• Confirm that all team members are fully prepared (e.g., equipment, supplies, conceptual awareness).
• File a travel plan and makes sure that it is followed.
• Maintain the necessary safety standards.
• Serve as the final arbiter for critical field decisions.

Individual Skills

• During a field expedition, each member of the group should be able to do the following:
• Account for all the members. Failing this, develop a strategy to quickly find any missing member.
• Show the direction to the base station. (What is a base station? Why is it important?)
• Tell how long it will take to return to the base station.
• Respond to the dangers posed by extreme weather.
• Estimate the time until sunset/dusk and how this might affect the current situation.
• Start a fire.
• Describe the procedure if separated from the group (e.g., lost off the trail).
• Improvise a rain shelter.
• Prepare to spend the night outdoors when this was not part of the scheduled activities.

Group Skills

During a field expedition, there should be group leadership and individual skills that allow the group to do the following:

• Communicate with the base station.
• Verbalize an appropriate response to an emergency involving an individual (e.g., broken leg, shock, bad cut).
• Organize to shift gear in case one or more members can not carry their share.
• Provide assistance to another party traveling in the same area (e.g., directions, dangers, water, food).
• Find someone who is lost in an organized manner that does not unnecessarily endanger other people.
• Respond to a problem associated with the loss or failure of equipment.
• Develop a strategy for crossing a stream that has suddenly risen.
• Create a group consensus when there is a problem (e.g., which trail to take, should someone be sent for help).

Group Emergency Considerations

• Each person needs to have a photo on file for emergency responders. 
• Each person needs to have a "who to contact in emergency" file. 
• Each field site or trail needs to have an emergency plan.

Please Note: The skills and behaviors for this topic are under development.

Pre-Travel Assessment

A field researcher doesn't just go to a place to do a study. A considerable amount of pre-travel work is done in order to assess the situation that is likely to be encountered. This, in turn, helps the researcher develop the plans and obtain the needed supplies and equipment.

Novice

• Goes to a place with little (or no) knowledge related to the location.
• Depends entirely on other people to make all arrangements.
• Has no specific plans for collecting data and makes no provisions for gathering information.
• Does not anticipate any events that are associated with the location.
• Has no information on places that are nearby or which would otherwise provide a comparison.
• Did not make any contacts with people at the location.
• Is not aware of any permit requirements.
• Makes no preparations for being contacted.
• Has neglected to anticipate for the weather, currency or other such things are requires the assistance of other people.
• Is completely unable to cope with emergencies.

Advanced Beginner

• Collects basic information about the location before departure.
• Knows some of the history of the place.
• Establishes at least one contact in the location.
• Makes some of the arrangements for the travel.
• Has a formal research plan.
• Obtains some permits before embarking and knows how to get any others on arrival.
• Knows that something must be done to thank people who provide assistance.
• Is basically self-sufficient on arrival and knows how to obtain needed additional resources.
• Handles most aspects of an emergency but makes some reliance on other people.

Competent

• Has developed a good knowledge of the destination due to the use of a few resources.
• Builds a network of host-area people who have specific knowledge and skills relevant to the trip ahead of any travel.
• Creates templates for information gathering.
• Organizes activities around check-lists so that key tasks are not forgotten.
• Has the supplies and equipment that are appropriate to the place and research conditions, including backup and contingency materials and supplies.
• Can handle most emergencies unaided.

Proficient

• Has an intimate knowledge of the destination through the use of a variety of resources.
• Develops alternative plans that can accommodate unexpected problems.
• Plans creative ways to assist the people who will be helping the work.
• Is able to assist other people in emergency situations.

Expert

• Sets activities in motion that will pre-position resources before the travel begins.
• Coordinates activities (email, Skype) with people well in advance of the travel.
• Cultivates local resources that provide links into the destination community.
• Develops a deep understanding of the places, processes, people and events that allow comparisons to the field conditions.
• Handles language concerns in creative ways, including developing basic competence in the host language.
• Has a number of alternative research scenarios that can be used in case there are barriers to the original research plan.
• Finds ways to assist the host people even before the work takes place.
• Conducts all activities in ways that honor and respect the local culture.
• Provides leadership in emergency situations.

Please Note: The skills and behaviors for this topic are under development.